Conspiracy vs Conspiracy Theory

This paper is part of a series exploring the nature of conspiracy theories and conspiratorial thinking, in order to elucidate a model for a type of 'conspiratorial psychology'. Beginning with this introductory paper which defines conspiracies and conspiracy theories, subsequent papers in the series explore the human side of this dynamic - from logical fallacies to our use of heuristics in everyday life, and the manner in which we develop stereotypes and biases. This series aims to equip the reader with a set of tools for navigating the messy digital world of today; saturated with content and information, as well as misinformation, propaganda and conspiracy theories.

Conspiracy vs Conspiracy Theory

In order to understand conspiracy theories, we need to understand conspiracies. This begins by establishing the fact that actual conspiracies have occurred throughout history. A conspiracy, is when groups of individuals secretly and subversively plot together. Often these feature public figures or figures in positions of power (whether political, professional, or through the result of a background in a particular science or discipline) who are not overtly connected to one another. Often, the complicity of the media in masking these conspiracies has been documented as well.  

Many of humankind’s key sociohistorical turning points were motivated through conspiracies. This history of actual conspiracies gives a sense of plausibility to the mythology of conspiracy theories. Consider the following: 

• Caesar’s assassination was the result of a conspiracy.

  
  

• Judas Iscariot conspired with Pontius Pilate to betray Jesus Christ.  

• A conspiracy was behind the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln (but not the assassination of President John F Kennedy – as is widely claimed in a conspiracy theory) 

• A conspiracy was behind the Watergate Scandal – wherein Republican leadership intended on framing the Democratic party; resulting in tribunals and investigations that revealed further conspiracies – the ‘-gate’ suffix in Watergate has been carried forward and attached to other conspiracies and conspiracy theories, and has even been adopted into other languages in representing conspiracies, conspiracy theories and scandals. The ‘gate’ suffix does not only imply a scandal or conspiracy; but also, the mythology of mistrust in institutions and governments.   

• A conspiracy was behind the Iran-Contra scandal (also termed Irangate); wherein the United States government took arms from Iran to use in their military operations in Nicaragua 

• The CIA’s ‘Project MK ULTRA’ revealed a conspiracy into experiments with mind-altering drugs like LSD in order to develop better interrogative methodologies. The project involved the routine infringement of civilian rights - ranging from kidnapping, the unknowing ingestion of LSD, and even psychological torture. The project ran for TWENTY years (1953-1973), through different presidential administrations, and even involved a multiplicity of front companies through which unwitting subjects were targeted. From businesses to universities, the documented scope of the projects experiment were far-reaching, and considerable enough to warrant significant concern, and even legitimate beliefs in bizzare conspiracies.  

  

One of the infamous sub-projects of MKUltra, titled ‘Midnight Climax’, involved the recruitment of sex-workers to lure unwitting clients to safe-rooms and dose them with hallucinogenic drugs like LSD in order to research their effects. This seems both bizarre and outlandish; and gives credence to other bizarre and outlandish conspiracy theories. The MK Ultra conspiracy has spawned an enormous amount of conspiracy theories based on the evidence uncovered; from mind-controlled celebrities to mass public brainwashing.

• The many documented military campaigns and political coups motivated and supported by the likes of the United Kingdom, the United States, the French empire, and other large powers with military force. These incidents have revealed conspiracies to destabilize foreign powers for varying reasons (influence over the region, control over resources).  

• The work of propagandists and public relations experts also signal conspiratorial enterprises at work; as they develop narratives to influence public opinion towards particular strategic outcomes desired by their clients. 

• The discourse of ‘weapons of mass destruction’ used to invade Iraq was revealed as a lie – evidencing a conspiracy between President Bush and others to invade Iraq.  

• A conspiracy was behind the collaboration between the tobacco industry and a group of scientists, researchers, and even academic journals and publications, to deny the harms of smoking; involving a potent disinformation campaign. This is being mirrored by research undertaken by fuel industries aiming to develop disinformation around climate change. 

• A conspiracy was behind the Cambridge Analytica and Facebook scandal; where the user data of millions of Facebook users was used by the public relations and electioneering firm, Cambridge Analytica, in order to conduct experimentation and messaging campaigns during the 2016 election, in which their client, Donald Trump, was elected.  

• A conspiracy was behind the Bell Pottinger and Gupta-Zuma scandal; where the Zuma and Gupta alliance approached British public relations firm Bell Pottinger to develop a spin-doctored narrative for their political messaging which they distributed through fake accounts online and produced through pro-Zuma/Gupta news networks, news websites, and newspapers. 

  
  

• Even the functions of Surveillance Capitalism - where social networks and other companies sell our data to marketers - are highly conspiratorial in nature; conducted in the shadows, feeding off users data while keeping users in the dark as to the nature of these operations. These also include experiments on unwitting subjects.

Considering that all of these actual conspiracies have existed, gives credence and plausibility to conspiracy theories. Many of these conspiracies share common features with the conspiracy theories that dominate the media landscape today. From governments lying to their people, to secret CIA psychological experiments, to media narratives used to justify war - from weapons of mass destruction to dead babies. The public relations work around cigarettes and the tobacco industry gives plausibility to conspiracy theories about science and doctors acting against the health interests of the population – in order to serve their own profit interests – like the conspiracy theories that rose in the wake of the coronavirus pandemic. 

Even the discovery of living Coelacanth (here in KZN South Africa!), considered to have gone extinct hundreds of millions of years ago, give credence to conspiracy theories about Megalodons living in the deep ocean.  

live Coelacanth (left); fossilized Coelacanth (right)

Thus, the belief in conspiracy theories can be considered an adaptive response of suspicion to a world where governments have lied to their people, where science has been proven wrong, where news media has lied to their audience and scientific bodies have lied for profit. Where secretive government agencies and departments have conducted experiments on the population. Given this, developing a conspiratorial belief is therefore not as outlandish or foolhardy as it may seem; it is an instinctive defensive response to a world where the powerful have been routinely caught in abuses against the powerless.  

The problem is when this skepticism begins to overwhelm all forms of public discourse, when this sense of critique begins to subvert central critical institutions necessary for the health of society and democratic processes. This is worsened in an era where conspiracies have become easy sources for content creators, media outlets, and propagandists. Many conspiracy theories have been deliberately aligned and conflated with political agendas; like White Monopoly Capital and the Gupta/Zuma political agenda for South Africa; or the Great Replacement Theory with white nationalist agendas around the world.

At the same time, even those theories without overt political connections can still have political effects.

Example, theories about cryptids or megalodons in the ocean still contribute to the erosion of trust in critical institutions necessary for public health. At the same time, content featuring such conspiracies becomes a sort of 'gateway drug' to further conspiracies; on the one hand because of the aforementioned erosion of trust, but on the other hand, because of algorithms that sort and select content for a user. These algorithms analyze the content a user consumes and then sorts and selects more of that type of content for that user. This can result in a user consuming conspiratorial content about ancient sharks subsequently receiving content about holocaust denialism or other types of conspiracies which do bear overt social and political associations.

Additionally, conspiracy theories do not have copyrights - this leaves the door open for content creators and influencers to adapt and appropriate conspiracy theories from various fringes of the internet in order to grow their followings and earn advertising revenue from the respective platform. This has been a key factor in the explosion of conspiracy theories over the past decade.

The perspective that conspiracy theories are the result of an adaptive response to a world of mistrust and suspicion, is the perspective that frames this site's approach to conspiracies and conspiracy theories. As humans, we all have particular concerns and anxieties that can be targeted and exploited by misinformation and conspiracy theories; particularly in the interconnected digital society of today, where our personal data is being scrutinized to develop more effective messaging and propaganda to target our concerns and influence our behaviours.

In the second part of this series, we shift our focus to logical fallacies, particularly those used in the media, and those used by everyday people in everyday life. These are cognitive pitfalls that can lead us into believing in conspiracy theories.